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Title : ERROR ANALYSIS: Perspectives on Second Language

Acquisition

Editor : Jack C. Richards

Publisher : Longman Group Limited

(Fifth Impression 1980)

Part One

Introductory

- Study of the child-learner’s errors does indeed throw light on the types of the cognitive and linguistic processes that appear to be part of language learning process (Menyuk, 1971)

- In second language learning, the learner’s errors are indicative both of the state of the learner’s knowledge, and of the ways in which a second language is learned.

1. The Study of Learner English

(Jack C. Richards and Gloria P Sampson)

There are seven factors that may influence and characterize the second language learner systems:

a) Language transfer. Sentences in the target language my exhibit interferences from the mother tongue.

b) Intralingual Interferences. It refers to items produced by the learner which reflect not the structure of the mother tongue, but generalizations based on partial exposure to the target language.

c) Sociolinguistics Situation.

d) Modality. Interferences between the bilingual’s languages is generally in the productive rather than in receptive side. Some of the modalities are: auditory cues, spelling pronunciations, and confusions of written and spoken styles.

e) Age. Some aspects of the child’s learning capacities change as he grows older and these may affect language learning.

f) Successions of Approximative Systems.

g) Universal Hierarchy of Difficulty.

2. The Significance of Learners’ Errors

(SP Corder)

The difference between first language acquisition and second language learning:

First language acquisition	Second language learning
- The learning of the mother tongue is the part of the whole maturational process of the child	- Learning a second language normally begins only after the maturational process

The learner’s errors provide evidence of the system of the language that is using at the particular point at the course. For the teacher, it can give information about how far the goal has been reached, and what remains for him/her to be learned.

Part Two

Towards Theories and Models

In this part, it will be discussed some suggestions about the ways in which learner speech is characterized.

1. Interlanguage

(Larry Selinker)

Interlanguage is relevant behavioral events which are identified using the aid of theoretical constructs which assume the major features of the psychological structure.

2. Approximative systems of foreign language learners

(William Nemser)

An Approximative system is the deviant linguistic system actually employed by the learner attempting to utilize the target language.

3. Social Factors, Interlanguage, and Language Learning

(Jack C. Richards)

The concept of Interlanguage is proposed for the processes affecting language learning in the following context:

a. Immigrant language learning

b. Indigenous minority variety of English

c. Pidgin and creoles setting

d. Local varieties of English

e. English as foreign language

Part Three

Development Studies of Second Language Acquisition in Children

1. You Can’t Learn Without Goofing: An Analysis of Children’s Second Language ‘Errors’

(Heidi C Dulay and Marina K Burt)

Second language acquisition means the acquisition of another language after having acquired the basics of the first. Bilingual acquisition is the acquisition of two language simultaneously. The term goof signifies deviation from syntactic structures which native adult speakers consider grammatically correct.

2. Language Acquisition in a Second Language Environment

(Roar Ravem)

Roar Raver finds that the second language learners find some difficulties in studying second language. It is because the differences that occur in the structure of the mother language and the second language.

3. The Development of Wh-Questions in First and Second Language Learner

(Roar Ravem)

The development of Wh-questions in children reflects the transformational derivations in transformational generative grammar.

Part Four

Error Analyses of Adult Language Learning

1. Idiosyncratic Dialects and Error Analysis

(S P Corder)

The learners cannot be divided from its group (social). The study of second language learner must also include this factor.

2. A Non-Contrastive Approach to Error Analysis

(Jack C Richards)

There are several types of errors, observed in the acquisition of English as second language, which do not derive from transfers from another language. The errors derive from the strategies employed by the learner in language acquisition, and from the mutual interference of items within the target language.

Dick and Carrey Instructional Diagram

Dick, W., & Carey, L.(1978). The Systematic Design of Instruction. (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/943534/Dick-and-Carrey-Instructional-Design). (friday, september 19th 2008)

What we can learn from Dick and Carey Instructional Design Model:

In conducting teaching – learning, we have to determine the goal, revise the process or performance, and set the evaluation.

English Teaching Objectives in Indonesia

The main objectives of English Teaching in Indonesia are to master the four language skills – Speaking, Listening, Reading, and Writing. However, in conducting the teaching, the teachers also have to see the English Teaching conditions in Indonesia. There are at least three most influential factors in conducting English Teaching in Indonesia:

1. Time

The time available is insufficient. Time is probably the most important factors in English Teaching. It is because in learning language we need more practice. Practice, of course, needs time. According to Mac Kay (Language Teaching Analysis), we need at least 5000 hours of exposure to acquire our native language, and we need at least 900 hours to learn foreign language.

2. Teachers’ Qualification

Most of teachers in Indonesia are unqualified based on their educational background and their teaching load. We often find, in Indonesia, some teachers who have no English educational background. Surprisingly, still in Indonesia, English teachers teach more than 20 hours a week. So, it can be imagined how busy they are. Because of the highness of the teaching load, the teachers can not improve themselves. They can not read books, follow conferences, etc.

3. Students’ Motivation

In general, the students’ motivation in Indonesia is to pass UN exam.

Because not all of the language skills can be mastered at the same time, so we, as English Teacher, have to make a list of priority. In making the list of priority, we have to see the condition in Indonesia, and also the students’ needs. For example, we can not make speaking as the top of priority because not all of students have chance to use this skill. The contribution that can be given by student by mastering speaking skill is also smaller than mastering other skills, for example reading skill.

THE INTERNET AND EDUCATION

Introduction

Through the use of advanced computing and telecommunication technologies, learning can also be qualitatively different. The process of learning in the classroom can become significantly richer as students have access to new and different types of information. They can manipulate it on the computer through graphic displays or controlled experiments in ways never before possible, and can communicate their results and conclusions in a variety of media to their teacher, students in the next classroom, or students around the world.

Information technology, especially the Internet, has changed the way of education around the world. The Internet has become such a huge libraries or information resource for both teachers and students. They can get any information they need only in a second. They, now, do not need again to go to library to look for references they need in order to accomplish they assignment. They just need to sit down in front of computer linked to the Internet and they can go to thousand of online libraries. However, can we trust something just because it is on website (Internet)? How can we trust such writing that we do not know who the ‘real’ author is? Technology, even one with as much potential as the Internet, is only as good as the users who make of it. The Internet is like a knife with double edge. The Internet provides not only facts but also lies, rumors, etc. Staley J. Baran, a communication expert, said that:

Lies have always been part of human interaction; the Internet only gives them greater reach. There is little that government can do to control this abuse. Legal remedies already exist in the form of libel laws and prosecution for fraud. Users can help by teaching themselves to be more attentive to return addresses and by ignoring messages that are sent anonymously or that have suspicious origins. (2004, p. 321)

Besides, as much as its benefits, the Internet also has some negative impacts, for example: pornography. Metro TV on January 1^st 2008 has ever broadcasted special news about the glowing of some children that open porn sites.

This paper tries to answer some questions related to the Internet in the function as information source. Will the Internet, in this case e-book (electronic book), substitute the conventional book? What should we do to make the use of the Internet as properly to its 'real' function as possible? Can we trust the Internet? What is the effect that the Internet brings into the education?

The Definition of the Internet

There are so many various definitions about the Internet. However, ED Tittel and Margaret Robbins describe the internet as follow:

…the most general definition describes the Internet as a network of networks. A network is any group of computers connected together to share information sources. If the computers are connected within a single building or similarly sized area, the network is called a local area network, or LAN… when LAN extends outside building, it becomes a wide area network, or WAN. A WAN can extend between two adjacent buildings, across a city, or across the world. Because a WAN is really a group of networks, it is also sometimes called an internetwork. The most famous internetwork in the world today, and arguably the largest, is the Internet. (1995, p. 5-6)

Here are other definitions about the Internet:

1. The Internet is a worldwide network of computers holding vast quantities of data accessible directly from a home computer.[1]
2. The Internet is a large collection of computers in Network that are tied together so that many users can share their vast resources (Williams, 199)

By using the Internet, an individual can access data and communicate with others worldwide from his or her computer. It is because his or her computer has been tied together with computers around the world so the data can be shared and used together. ED Tittel and Margaret Robbins

The Users of the Internet

The users of the Internet vary from the very young people to the very old one, from individual to the organization, and from nonprofit organization to the profit one. In general, however, we can divide the users of the Internet into some categories:

1. Universities and Schools

In the past, only universities could afford to take advantage of this offer, because giving student access meant getting computers for those students to use. As a result, many university students have had the chance to go exploring on the Internet. Now, more and more elementary and secondary schools getting online.

The students usually use the Internet to assign projects requiring them to do research online, to take surveys, to use it as social tool (e-mail, blog, etc.), to conduct discussion, etc.

2. Libraries

Many libraries, now, have Internet connections. This means that people around the world can log in to the library computer to search for particular book, article, recording, or other document.

3. Governments

The government uses the Internet to give accessibility of data, national information, public policy, and other information relate to its citizenships.

4. Corporations

The corporations use the Internet to exchange information with remote branches, their partnerships, and other corporations with whom they joint ventures. The corporations also use the Internet to advertise their products.

5. Nonprofit Organizations

Nonprofit organizations are data-collection operations, and their responsibility is to make the data accessible to the public. Internet access, they are finding, is the ideal mechanism to making their data available to the largest number of people.[2]

6. Individuals

Such people come to the Internet for a huge variety of reasons and access it in hundreds of different ways. It is very hard to describe this group. It is because the Internet has been like 'real world'. We almost can get in the Internet whatever available in the world.

The Use of the Internet in Education

Internet has given significant influence to the way teachers educate students. Today, we do not need again to always doing education in the classroom as in the conventional learning does. We can conduct learning wherever and whenever using the Internet. We can use webcam and online message to interact between students and teachers, and between students and students. This kind of learning is usually called e-learning. Rosenberg (2004) in Robin Mason and Frank Rennie – E-learning: The Key Concepts – defines e-learning as:

E-learning refers to the use of the internet technologies to deliver a broad array of solutions that enhance knowledge and performance. It is based upon three fundamental criteria:

1. It is networked.

2. It is delivered to the end-user via a computer using standard internet technology.

3. It focuses on broadest view of learning.

A simple yet comprehensive definition has been produced by the Open and Distance Learning Quality Council of the UK. It recognizes the distinction between the content of learning and the process: E-learning is the effective learning process created by combining digitally delivered content with (learning) support and services.

As it has been mentioned before, universities and schools have used the Internet as various reasons, but, in general, both of them use the Internet to make learning easier and more effective. In modern era, we need not only to do something right but also to do something quickly. There is always deadline to do. We also often have to do many assignments. By using the Internet, which is linked to many sources, this problem can be solved.

The Internet also provides many interesting features that can make learning more enjoyable. We can download articles, podcast, news, and many other important matters in only a minute, and of course it is much cheaper than we have to buy it. Because, it is usually free.

The Internet also provides students and teacher with e-book that can be downloaded freely. This electronic book is just like the conventional one. It can be read using the computer. E-book is often shares free, but sometimes the author also sales it. But the e-book costs much cheaper than the conventional book. It is because e-book does not use paper as its media. As we know that the paper price increases, e-book perhaps can be solution to the new generation of book. Many experts believe that e-book will substitute the use of conventional book in the future.

The 'Black Side' of the Internet

The Internet is like knife with two edges. It contains many useful and harmful things in a time. If we can not use the Internet properly then it will give worse impact than any other media. One of the negative impacts of the Internet is the pornography. Can you imagine if your dear children see this 'adult' site freely by just typing the porn website? How will your children be?

There are some efforts to save children from accessing this adult site. The Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996 forbade online transmission of any image that "appears to be of a minor engaging in sexually explicit product." Proponents argued that the impact of child porn on the children involved, as well as on society, warranted this legislation. Opponent argued that child pornography per se was already illegal, regardless of the medium. Therefore they saw this law as an unnecessary and overly broad intrusion freedom of expression on the Net.[3]

Another is copyright. Copyright protection is designed to ensure that those who create content are financially compensated for their work. Using the Internet, the students can find the article relating to their study or assignment rather easy. However, not all students use the article or material they found in the Internet as their reference. They, sometimes, use it as their own creation. This criminal of Intellectual Property Ownership has become greater day by day. There are still many negative impacts that the Internet brings. However, it is not sufficient to discuss it in this paper.

Conclusion

The technology is developed to make our life becomes easier. We can not live without technology. However, if we use the technology improperly then it will give us bad effects as many as its benefits. The Internet, as other technologies, is also developed to help human beings solve their problems and to make life easier. We have to use it as properly as possible. In one side, the Internet can be challenge to make education better. It is easy, fast and ready to access, and has no limit. Like or not, the Internet has become our part of life. However, we have to remember that 'tool is only tool', it depends on what we use it for.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allesi, S.M., and Trollie, S.R. Computer Based Instruction: Methods and Development. Englewood Cliffs: Prectice-Hall. 1985.

Asnawir, H., and Usman, Basyirudin. Media Pembelajaran. Ciputat: Ciputat Pers. 2002.

Crumlish, Christian. The ABCs of the Internet: Makes the Most of Your Time Online (2^nd edition). San Francisco: SYBEX. 1997.

Lewis, Chris. 101 Essential Tips Using the Internet. New York: DK Publishing. 1997.

Mason, Robin, and Frank Rennie. Elearning: The Key Concepts. New York: Routlege. 2006.

Sharp, John. ; Ward, Stephen. ; and Hankin, Les. Education Studies: An Issues-Based Approach. Glasgow: Bell and Bain Ltd. 2006.

Tittel, ED., and Margaret Robbins. Internet Access Essentials: Everything You Need to Know. New York: Academic Press. 1995.

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[1] Chris Lewis, 101 Essential Tips Using the Internet (New York: DK Publishing, 1997), p. 8.

[2] ED Tittel and Margaret Robbins, Internet Access Essentials: Everything You Need to Know (New York: Academic Press, 1995), p. 10.

[3] Stanley J. Baran, Introduction to Mass Communication: Media Literacy and Culture (Third Edition) (New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2004) p. 321-322.

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Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching

Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching

Grammar Translation Method (Prussian, the Ciceronian)

“To know everything about something rather than to know the thing itself. “

The Principal characteristics of The Grammar-Translation Method were these (Jack C. Richard and Theodore S. Rodger: 1992):

1. The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign language study.

2. Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening.

3. Vocabulary selection is based on solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual word list, dictionary study, and memorization.

4. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice.

5. Accuracy is emphasized.

6. Grammar is taught deductively.

7. The student’s native language is the medium of instruction.

The purpose of using Grammar-Translation Method (Dianne Larsen-Freeman: 2002)

® To help students read and appreciate foreign language literature.

® To make student be more familiar with the grammar of their native language and this familiarity would help them speak and write their native language better.

® It was thought that foreign language learning would help students grow intellectually; it was recognized that students would probably never use the target language, but the mental exercise of learning it would be beneficial anyway.

The Principles of GTM (Dianne Larsen-Freeman: 2002)

1. A fundamental purpose of learning a foreign language is to be able to read literature written in it.

2. An important goal is for students to be able to translate each language into the other.

3. The ability to communicate in the target language is not a goal of foreign language instruction.

4. The primary skills to be developed are reading and writing.

5. The teacher is the authority in the classroom.

6. Learning is facilitated through attention to similarities between the target language and the native language.

7. Language (grammar) is taught deductively.

The Direct Method (Natural Method)

The Direct Method has one very basic rule: No translation is allowed.

This method is called natural method because it is used naturalistic principles of language learning (Jack C. Richard and Theodore S. Rodger: 1992). This term also derived from the school which L Sauveur had opened in Boston in the late 1860s. Sauveur and other believers in the Natural Method argued that a foreign language could be taught without translation or the use of the learner’s native tongue if meaning was conveyed directly through demonstration and action.

According to Franke, a language could best be taught by using it actively in the classroom.

In fact, the Direct Method receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language through the use of demonstration and visual aids, with no recourse to the students’ native language (Diller 1978).

Principles and Procedures (Jack C. Richard and Theodore S. Rodger: 1992:

1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.

2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.

3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question and answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.

4. Grammar was taught inductively.

5. New teaching points were introduced orally.

6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.

7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.

8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.